Special education books free download pdf

Moreover, to become proficient in completing newly acquired skills, stu- dents need sufficient practice. Strategic review provides pupils with opportunities to practice the steps needed to successfully complete assigned tasks.

Strategies are modeled initially by teachers who overtly display step-by-step procedures and then provide ample opportunities for pupils to apply these strategies in meaningful learn- ing activities.

Skill practice across relevant activities enables students to apply strategies whenever they encounter similar tasks. The importance of strategic in- tegration for students with special needs is highlighted in a quotation in Box 1. Judicious review, a sixth instructional strategy, gives students multiple addi- tional opportunities to practice what they have learned and to receive constructive feedback on their performance.

This strategy ensures that knowledge and skills are retained over time and can be applied in different situations. In addition to forming these six research-based instructional strategies, special educators have played a significant role in the development of differentiated in- struction, a concept that has taken hold nationwide as part of ongoing school re- form movements see, e.

Differentiated instruction refers to the modification of instruction and curricular content, processes, and products in response to individual student needs and abilities. In differentiated classrooms, teachers fashion instruction around essential concepts and principles, as well as around the diverse needs and skills of individual pupils.

Did it really seem to work when we gave stu- dents who skipped school three additional days out of school on suspension? Does it really make sense to withhold positive attention from youngsters who rarely re- ceive any positive attention outside of school? Is simply telling noncompliant and disruptive students that they should behave better the most effective way we have for getting them to do so?

Such questions, advice, policies, and practices have been evident in education for far too long. Not only have these perspectives and practices been ineffective, but in many cases they have been downright harmful.

These ideas are summarized in Box 1. Recognize That Behavior Is Learned Special educators recognized early on that most, if not all, human behavior was learned, typically through the complex interactions that occurred among individ- uals and their immediate learning environments.

This concept was particularly important for special educators because many of their pupils had noticeable behavioral differences that set them apart from their peers and often resulted in negative educational outcomes e. The ability to change pupil behavior in a more socially appropriate manner empowered spe- cial educators to provide relief and support for children with behavioral difficul- ties, as well as for their teachers and caregivers. The special education and applied psychology literatures provide numerous examples of the wide range of behavior problems that have been improved through systematic behavioral interventions e.

Identify Socially Important Goals Special educators have also contributed significantly to the selection of functional or socially important behavioral goals: skills that will most likely help students succeed in school and society.

Historically, the term discipline has become synony- mous with punishment in our schools see Box 1. Consequently, the goals of many traditional classroom and behavior management approaches were to suppress misbehavior and produce quiet and docile yet atten- tive students. Indeed, the picture of a classroom of children sitting straight up in their desks with their feet firmly on the floor and staring attentively at the teacher was the hallmark of good classroom management for many educators.

While there is nothing inherently wrong with quiet, seated pupils who pay attention, research has found this to be an insufficient educational outcome. Instead, students must be actively involved in their own learning, and they must acquire more socially re- sponsible behaviors if they are to succeed in school and life.

They must, for ex- ample, learn to treat themselves and others with respect, cooperate with peers and adults, and try to do their best academically. Good behavior management simply replaces inappropriate behavior with more responsible social actions. Box 1. The word discipline is actually a derivative of the word disciple, or follower of a positive image or way.

Most often, discipline has been equated with pun- ishment, and many educators have assumed that in order to develop good discipline one must rely on negative consequences such as reprimands, loss of privileges, or exclusion.

Very well done. Rather than waiting until Christmas to smile—or withholding positive attention from students who rarely receive it at home—effective educators catch pupils being good early and often throughout the school year. Moreover, they use a ratio of three or four positive comments to each reductive consequence e. When one notices pupils being good it is very important to recognize their behavior or what they are doing rather than making more global positive state- ments.

A ratio of three or four positive comments to each reprimand not only creates a more positive learning environment but also provides frequent opportunities for students to be recognized for the many good things that they do during the school day. In school, the key lies in finding positive consequences that are natural and meaningful for students, that require little time to use, and that are relatively in- expensive. The extensive research of Marzano, Pickering, et al.

Notably, they advise teachers to provide recognition for effort and ac- complishments while teaching students to discriminate between their effort and personal results.

Be Proactive and With-It Special educators also emphasize a proactive rather than reactive approach to be- havior management. Instead of waiting for pupils to misbehave and then reacting by applying a reductive consequence e.

They do so by following the tips in Box 1. Highly effective special educators anticipate and prepare themselves for possible aberrant behaviors e. Effective teachers also use an instructive approach when student misbehavior does occur.

Smart educators use a critical blend of technically and contextually appropriate instructional procedures to meet the needs of children as well as the desires and values of their families and teachers. Use Self-Management Strategies Special educators also use self-monitoring and self-management strategies to help pupils take responsibility for their own performance. Independent learning requires students to check their own behavior, to decide if it is effective, and, if necessary, to make changes to meet an expected standard.

One critical component involves self-monitoring— teaching students to identify and measure their own performance. Some basic tips for using self-monitoring strategies effectively can be found in Box 1. Researchers have found that simply teaching students to keep track of their own behavior often has a therapeutic effect. Individuals who eat or smoke too much usually do so less frequently when taught to count how often they do such things. Similarly, teaching students to make marks each time they interact ap- propriately with peers tends to increase the likelihood that they will do so in the future.

If just counting does not produce desired behavior change, then students must learn to do something about it without being prompted by a teacher. Students were taught to recognize when they were doing something inappropriate e.

A period of 15, 30, or 60 minutes per day is more than sufficient. Select the time when the problem is most prevalent and gradually increase moni- toring times. Teacher consequences were then faded over time as students learned to self-regulate or self-manage. This program, which teaches all students within a classroom to monitor their own behaviors simultaneously, would appear to be very functional for inclusive educational settings.

The need to main- tain orderly classroom behavior and teach children how to manage their own be- havior is a critical outcome for general and special educators alike. Schoolwide Implementation Finally, special educators have learned most recently that they are more likely to achieve generalized behavior changes when they work on a school- or system-wide basis. Schoolwide approaches involve faculty and staff working collaboratively to identify a common set of behavioral expectations for all children, adopting a con- sistent set of beliefs for managing student behavior e.

Research on schoolwide behavior plans and positive behav- ioral support systems provide two shining examples of the type of behavioral change that is possible when educational professionals are on the same page and work collaboratively to meet common educational goals e.

Such systems promote social responsibility among all pupils and minimize disruptive and significant behavior problems among our most challenging students. Schoolwide behavior plans are used increasingly within highly effective school districts. Positive behavioral supports are put into place for individual students e.

To- day, the special education—born emphasis on self-management has grown signifi- cantly into schoolwide directions for fostering self-regulation, a natural blend of the special and general education worlds. In the s, special educators began to look critically at their outcomes and realized that many students with special needs were leav- ing high school without a repertoire of functional life skills.

That is, they 1 were not prepared adequately to acquire entry-level jobs, 2 required maximum assis- tance to get around the community, and 3 had not learned even the most essen- tial young adult social skills e.

This realization co-occurred with the mainstreaming and community inclusion movements in which individuals with disabilities were being expected to partici- pate more fully in school and community life.

While these integration movements were well intended and had a strong philosophy of equality, they failed to provide a sound foundation for translating what we knew about good teaching into routine instructional practice. Thus, special educators began to prepare students for fuller participation outside the classroom, in areas including community mobility, pro- social skill development, job preparation, household management, and sexuality.

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Buy Now. Business Law by Ashok Sharma. Elements of Company Law by N. Management Accounting by Dr. What are the subjects in B. How can I download the syllabus of B. Where can I find B. Com 1st year notes in pdf? Facebook WhatsApp Messenger Pinterest. That law officially recognized "specific learning disability" SLD as a category eligible for special education funding and service.

That definition still stands today, and children with learning disabilities comprise nearly half of the 6. According to the U. Office of Special Education Programs, 2. That's more than three times the number of students served during the school year. With access to special education services mostly solved, parents and LD advocates changed focus in the late s and early s.

More students with LD were being identified and were receiving special education services. Too often, though, those students were not being taught the school's general curriculum. This shortcoming was addressed with the reauthorization of IDEA when an emphasis on access to the general curriculum was added to the statute.

This change "reminds everyone that the expectation is that every child - including LD kids - is going to participate in the same curriculum and have the same academic objectives," says Linda Lewis, coordinator of federal policy and programs for the College of Education at the University of Oregon.

In recent years, parents and LD advocates have again shifted their attention. As concerns over access to the general curriculum are resolved, questions over the identification of learning disabilities have grown.

For the round of IDEA reauthorization, school officials, special education experts, and policymakers across the country said revising the eligibility criteria was a top priority.

The steady increase in the number of students identified with LD is certainly a main reason for the attention. Experts noted, however, that the LD identification process has been flawed for some time. The process used in many states prior to the reauthorization of IDEA is officially known as the discrepancy model.

It measures the discrepancy between a child's academic performance and his intellectual ability. A significant discrepancy, according to this method, typically indicates LD. Critics have called this the "wait-to-fail" model, because it requires a child to fall behind his peers before being identified with LD. What should be occurring, according to leading expert in reading research Dr.

Reid Lyon, is early screening and intervention for all children. Lyon, Chief of Child Development and Behavior at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, says there is strong evidence for investing in early identification and prevention programs. It's a much longer problem-solving process," says Linda Lewis. The sooner that process begins - whether in pre-school or kindergarten - the better, she says. In other words, imagine yourself in second grade in You have had trouble reading, but under the discrepancy model your reading disorder might not have been identified until you reached the third or fourth grade.

That kind of delayed identification might, in fact, have prevented you from ever catching up to your classmates.