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Recommended Books. Latest Books Formulas Of Acoustics springer Hidden Terrors: The Truth Asia On Tour: Exploring How To Make And Epilepsy Board Quick Review On social cost. What we envisage is a program of development based on the concepts of democratic fair dealing. Many sought a new form of democratic participation, neither the capitalist parties nor the organized communist parties on the Eastern European model; they remained non-aligned to any of the capitalist or communist camp.

However, as time went on, both economic differentiation and political polarization tended to break up the rather fragile unity among third world countries and destroyed the original idea of the third world as the non-aligned world.

New issues came to the forefront, notably the environment, international debt, and the question of gender relations. Then at the end of that decade came the sudden end of the Cold War.

The United States in Particular saw an outbreak of triumphalism. The notion that liberal capitalism is now the only basis for development remains strong.

However many would quarrel with this proposition…. The importance of seeking an alternative remains, but is not manifest in the activities of any major development agencies.

Gross domestic product "measures everything In a similar way, the HPI is an average of three measures of deprivation. Vulnerability to death at a relatively early age, deprivation in knowledge, and lack of decent living standards. Different standards for what constitutes deprivation are used.

Introduction 2. Theory of modernization 3. Theory of dependency 4. Theory of world-systems 5. Theory of globalization 6. Bibliography 1. Introduction The main objective of this document is to synthesize the main aspects of the four major theories of development: modernization, dependency, world-systems and globalization. These are the principal theoretical explanations to interpret development efforts carried out especially in the developing countries.

These theoretical perspectives allow us not only to clarify concepts, to set them in economic and social perspectives, but also to identify recommendations in terms of social policies. For the purposes of this paper, the term development is understood as a social condition within a nation, in which the authentic needs of its population are satisfied by the rational and sustainable use of natural resources and systems.

This utilization of natural resources is based on a technology, which respects the cultural features of the population of a given country. This general definition of development includes the specification that social groups have access to organizations, basic services such as education, housing, health services, and nutrition, and above all else, that their cultures and traditions are respected within the social framework of a particular country.

In economic terms, the aforementioned definition indicates that for the population of a country, there are employment opportunities, satisfaction -at least- of basic needs, and the achievement of a positive rate of distribution and redistribution of national wealth.

Theory of Modernization According to Alvin so, there are three main and historical elements which were favorable to the inception of the modernization theory of development after the Second World War.

First, there was the rise of the United States as a superpower. Third, there was the disintegration of European colonial empires in Asia, Africa and Latin America, giving birth to many new nation-states in the Third World. These nascent nation-states were in search of a model of development to promote their economy and to enhance their political independence.

Smelser argues that although structural differentiation has increased the functional capacity of modern organizations, it has also created the problem of integration, and of coordinating the activities of the various new institutions. Modernization is a homogenizing process, in this sense, we can say that modernization produces tendencies toward convergence among societies, for example, Levy , p.

These nations are viewed as having unmatched economic prosperity and democratic stability Tipps: , In addition, modernization is an irreversible process, once started modernization cannot be stopped. In other words, once third world countries come into contact with the West, they will not be able to resist the impetus toward modernization. According to Coleman, modernized political systems have a higher capacity to deal with the function of national identity, legitimacy, penetration, participation, and distribution than traditional political systems.

Finally, modernization is a lengthy process. It is an evolutionary change, not a revolutionary one. It will take generations or even centuries to complete, and its profound impact will be felt only through time. All these assumptions are derived from European and American evolutionary theory. The attribute of modernity forms a consistent whole, thus appearing in a cluster rather than in isolation; [10] b Modernization is a transformative process; in order for a society to move into modernity its traditional structures and values must be totally replaced by a set of modern values; [11] and c Modernization is an imminent process due to its systematic and transformative nature, which builds change into the social system.

One of the principal applications of the modernization theory has been the economic field related to public policy decisions. In summary, these five stages are: traditional society, precondition for takeoff, the takeoff process, the drive to maturity, and high mass consumption society. According to this exposition, Rostow has found a possible solution for the promotion of Third World modernization.

If the problem facing Third World countries resides in their lack of productive investments, then the solution lies in the provision of aid to these countries in the form of capital, technology, and expertise. Criticisms of the theory include the following: First, development is not necessarily unidirectional.

Second, the modernization perspective only shows one possible model of development. The favored example is the development pattern in the United States.

Nevertheless, in contrast with this circumstance, we can see that there have been development advances in other nations, such as Taiwan and South Korea; and we must admit that their current development levels have been achieved by strong authoritarian regimes. Third World countries do not have an homogeneous set of traditional values; their value systems are highly heterogeneous.

For example Redfield , distinguishes between the great traditional values values of the elites , and the little tradition values of the masses. Moreover, it is not possible to say that traditional values are always dichotomous from modern status, for example, loyalty to the Emperor can be transformed to loyalty to the firm. However, there are also important distinctions between the classical studies and the new studies of the modernization school.

For example, in the classical approach, tradition is an obstacle to development; in the new approach, tradition is an additive factor of development. With regard to methodology, the classical approach applies a theoretical construction with a high-level of abstraction; the new approach applies concrete case studies given in an historical context.

Regarding the direction of development, the classical perspective uses an unidirectional path which tends toward the United States and European model, the new perspective prefers a multidirectional path of development.

And finally, concerning external factors and conflict, the classicals demonstrate a relative neglect of external factors and conflict, in contrast to the greater attention to external factors and conflicts practiced by the new approach. One of the most representative authors was Raul Prebisch.

This more elaborated theoretical model was published at the end of the s and the mid s. Examples of this situation can be seen in Latin America, especially in those countries with a high degree of industrialization, such as Sao Paulo, Brazil which Andre G.

Frank uses as a case study. Second, the peripheral nations experience their greatest economic development when their ties to the core are weakest. An example of this circumstance is the industrialization process that took root in Latin America during the s, when the core nations were focusing on solving the problems that resulted from the Great Depression, and the Western powers were involved in the Second World War.

Lastly, the fourth aspect refers to the fact that regions that are highly underdeveloped and still operate on a traditional, feudal system are those that in the past had the closest ties to core.

In addition to Dos Santos, other classical authors in the dependency school are: Baran, who has studied conditions in India in the late s; and Landsberg, who has studied the processes of industrial production in the core countries in Furthermore, this theoretical position uses highly abstract levels of analysis. Another point of critique is that the dependency movement considers ties with transnational corporations as being only detrimental to countries, when actually these links can be used as a means of transference of technology.

In this sense, it is important to remember that the United States was also a colony, and this country had the capacity to break the vicious cycle of underdevelopment. These arguments originated mainly from the writings of Nikos Poulantzas. For this political scientist, governments in Third World countries have a certain amount of autonomy from the real axis of power within the nation. This is an important point that allows us to separate these aforementioned schools from the theoretical perspective of world-systems or globalization theory.

Theory of World Systems A central element from which the theory of world-systems emerged was the different form that capitalism was taking around the world, especially since the decade of the s. Starting in this decade, Third World countries had new conditions in which to attempt to elevate their standards of living and improve social conditions. These new conditions were related to the fact that the international financial and trade systems began to have a more flexible character, in which national government actions were having less and less influence.

Basically these new international economic circumstances made it possible for a group of radical researchers led by Immanuel Wallerstein to conclude that there were new activities in the capitalist world-economy which could not be explained within the confines of the dependency perspective.

These new features were characterized mainly by the following aspects: a East Asia Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore continued to experience a remarkable rate of economic growth. This crisis signaled the decline of revolutionary Marxism; c There was a crisis in North American capitalism which included the Vietnam War, the Watergate crisis, the oil embargo of , the combination of stagnation and inflation in the late s, as well as the rising sentiment of protectionism, the unprecedented governmental deficit, and the widening of the trade gap in the s, all signaling the demise of American hegemony in the capitalist world-economy.

These factors have created their own dynamic at the international level, and at the same time, these elements are interacting with the internal aspects of each country.

For the world-systems school, present economic conditions are not fully explainable within traditional development theories. This criticism of the capitalist system has been present since its birth. Under current international conditions, there are specific features of monopoly capital, its means of transaction, and its concrete operations worldwide which have affected international relations among nations to a considerable degree.

Theory of Globalization The theory of globalization emerges from the global mechanisms of greater integration with particular emphasis on the sphere of economic transactions. However, one of the most important characteristics of the globalization position is its focus and emphasis on cultural aspects and their communication worldwide. Rather than the economic, financial and political ties, globalization scholars argue that the main modern elements for development interpretation are the cultural links among nations.

In this cultural communication, one of the most important factors is the increasing flexibility of technology to connect people around the world. This fact will increase the possibility that marginal groups in poor nations can communicate and interact within a global context using the new technology; c The modern communications system implies structural and important modifications in the social, economic and cultural patterns of nations.

In terms of the economic activities the new technological advances in communications are becoming more accessible to local and small business. From a cultural perspective, the new communication products are unifying patterns of communications around the world, at least in terms of economic transactions under the current conditions; d The concept of minorities within particular nations is being affected by these new patterns of communications.

Even though these minorities are not completely integrated into the new world systems of communications, the powerful business and political elites in each country are a part of this interaction around the world Ultimately, the business and political elite continue to be the decision makers in developing nations; e Cultural elements will dictate the forms of economic and social structure in each country.

These social conditions are a result of the dominant cultural factors within the conditions of each nation. First, cultural factors are the determinant aspect in every society.

Second, it is not important, under current world conditions to use the nation-state as the unit of analysis, since global communications and international ties are making this category less useful. Third, with more standardization in technological advances, more and more social sectors will be able to connect themselves with other groups around the world.

This situation will involve the dominant and non-dominant groups from each nation. The theory of globalization coincides with several elements from the theory of modernization. One aspect is that both theories consider that the main direction of development should be that which was undertaken by the United States and Europe.

These schools sustain that the main patterns of communication and the tools to achieve better standards of living originated in those more developed areas. On this point it is important to underline the difference between the modernization perspective and the globalization approach. Both positions stress the fact that the path toward development is generated and must be followed in terms of the US and European models.

Globalization scholars argue that this circumstance is a fact in terms of the influence derived from the communications web and the cultural spread of values from more developed countries.

From this perspective, the systems of values, believes, and the pattern of identity of dominant -or hegemony- and the alternative -or subordinate- groups within a society are the most important elements to explain national characteristics in economic and social terms. Based on the aforementioned elements it is clear that the globalization and world- systems theories take a global perspective in determining the unit of analysis, rather than focusing strictly on the nation-state as was the case in the modernization and dependency schools.

The contrasting point between world-systems theory and globalization, is that the first contains certain neo-marxist elements, while the second bases its theoretical foundations on the structural and functionalist sociological movement.

Therefore the globalization approach tends more toward a gradual transition rather than a violent or revolutionary transformation. For the globalists authors, the gradual changes in societies become a reality when different social groups adapt themselves to current innovations, particularly in the areas of cultural communication.

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Need an account? Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. Craig Massie. A short summary of this paper. Download Download PDF. Translate PDF. Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Dr. Sara-Patricia Wasson for her tireless efforts to keep me on track with the workload, Professor Chris Atton for his knowledgeable insights into alternative media and the music industry, and last but not least my girlfriend Sana for ensuring that I would not fall pray to distraction during the writing of this dissertation.

Now that this weakness in the business model of the copyright industries has been exposed, calls for a reform in copyright law have amplified, and many of the advocates of filesharing technologies look to a possible form of digital marxism in which we no longer have to pay to enjoy our music. This work examines the discourse behind The Pirate Bay and illegal music filesharing, acting as a criticism of Marxist subtexts in pro-filesharing literature by using a variety of studies from sociological, legal, cultural and media backgrounds to show how a world of free music would not diminish the capitalist model behind music production, even if copyright law is to be radically revised or abolished.

In file sharing literature, Marxist concepts of relations of production, base and superstructure have regularly been utilized to explain how copyright law allows music to be commodified and sold contrary the needs of listeners, though this dissertation will argue that these concepts are ineffective in explaining why many filesharing advocates still hold the belief that music-making should somehow remain a paid occupation.

The Pirate Bay Logo……………………………………………………………….. Free culture, intellectual property and Internet Piracy…………… Pirate Bay defendants face the media…………………………………………….. The recent Pirate Bay lawsuit provides yet another chapter in a legal discourse behind the changing nature of copyright, and from here it remains unclear where the dominant forces in popular music will find themselves in the near future.

The least we can be sure of is that it heralds a new era in copyright legislation, one which may see the Internet become a liberal and fertile ground for the creation and distribution of music, a prospect that , or conversely it could perhaps become the point at which we lose our online freedoms and face suppression in both content and culture Lessig ; Harold In this dissertation I will show how the popular music industry and copyright law have been used to exemplify the theories of Karl Marx in practice, namely the relations of production and appropriation of surplus value to commodities, before contrasting these established Marxist analyses with the new and revolutionary implications of illegal file sharing, a practice which has been brought into the public conscious by the recent Pirate Bay lawsuits.

In light of how the website's outspoken stance on copyright has questioned our conceptions of music as a profitable business, I will also attempt to address some of the potential outcomes, both positive and negative, should musical works cease to be a commodity and be distributed for free. The concepts introduced in his seminal work Capital: A Critique of Political Economy can be invoked when discussing the capitalist nature of the popular music industry.

This notion reflects the way in which copyright holders of music can continue to make money from a piece of music long after the initial artistic labour has been undertaken. Marx also worked to establish a theory of base and superstructure, in which he attempts to explain how capitalism causes a noticeable relation of production.

A brief history of copyright law and artist production In order to examine the contemporary dilemmas in the music industry it is necessary to study how intellectual copyright functioned in the context of early capitalism, noting how companies have traditionally generated capital from abstract labour such as music using concepts such as resource scarcity, where a lack of a certain commodities in demand can justify the relative values places on them Cammaerts This means that we cannot apply Marxist logic to this new model of distribution for musical works, as they no longer fit Marxist descriptions of the transaction process as misrepresenting embodied labour, precepts that the copyright industries, such as music publishers and distributors, have based their business model around.

However, there remains a certain intellectual labour involved in the creation of art, but one that appears to be disproportionally rewarded in a capitalist system by the accumulation of royalties from sales and licensing via copyright law. For these composers to live solely as artists, they often required the patronage of certain members of royalty or the wealthy aristocracy who sought to invest in the arts as philanthropists Kertschmer and Kawohl However, in the early decades of the 20th century, the invention of recording technologies allowed the creation and sale of musical works to become significantly more lucrative.

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