The unspeakable oath pdf download

Despite differences on the JFK case, Dr. The report of the WC is not supported by the 26 volumes of hearings and exhibits Part C: Paul Bleau; beginning at "All these documents are yours -- the people's property -- you pay for it, but because the government considers you children who might be too disturbed to face this reality, because you might lynch those involved, you cannot see these documents for another 75 years.

I'm in my 40s, so I'll have shuffled off this mortal coil by then, but I'm already telling my 8-year-old son to keep himself physically fit so that one glorious September morning in he can walk into the National Archives and find out what the CIA and the FBI knew.

They may even push it back then. It may become a generational affair, with questions passed down from father to son, mother to daughter, in the manner of the ancient runic bards. Someday somewhere, someone might find out the damned Truth.

Or we might just build ourselves a new Government like the Declaration of Independence says we should do when the old one ain't working -- maybe a little farther out West" - From Oliver Stone's movie JFK Paul Bleau is also one of the talking heads in the documentary "We do know Oswald had intelligence connections.

The shells would never have been admitted into evidence in a trial against Oswald Dent in the shell CE FREE Download Ebook : Six Seconds in Dallas by Josiah "Tink" Thompson Not a single box of ammunition was found among Oswald's belongings What should have happened regarding the chain of custody for the shells Oswald would not have been convicted at the trial The palm prints on the rifle The bulk of the core evidence was transferred to the FBI on Or we might just build ourselves a new Government like the Declaration of Independence says we should do when the old one ain't working -- maybe a little farther out West" - From Oliver Stone's movie JFK The judges always side with the national security argument Biden's excuse for delaying the release of these files was that Covid slowed down their process!!!

Aguilar Russell Fisher led the four-member Clark Panel Fisher was very close to the CIA The Clark Panel made some very radical changes to the autopsy They did not exhume the body nor did they speak to the original pathologists who performed the autopsy www. David M. Butler Why are the documents not being released 60 years after the assassination of JFK?

We sent the traffic down via Torrens Strait, so that the track of the Japanese task force would be clear of any traffic" - Admiral Richmond K. Kennedy Jr. Cooper was the chief defense attorney of Sirhan Sirhan Cooper cliamed that Sirhan would be out of prision in 3. The bullet hole in Kennedy's shirt is larger than the bullet hole in Connally's shirt Dr.

Shaw was of the opinion that the bullet entering Connally was not tumbling Oval shape wound found on the back of Connally Oval shape suggests an acute angle of fire with respect to the skin There is no evidence that the bullet was tumbling Dr.

Shaw personally performed surgeries during world war two shrapnel and bullet wounds Zapruder film frame-by-frame Connally was shot around frame And Kennedy's fatal headshot was at frame This shows that the two shots were 17 frames apart As the Zapruder camera operated at 18 frames per sec, the two shots were a second apart roughly It takes around 2. Krulak and Col. I thought it was bad psychologically. But you and the president thought otherwise, and I just sat silent.

Green's website: www. D thesis to be published by skyhorse; pre-order here Upton Sinclair described University of Chicago as Standard Oil University Chile and the Chicago Boys Documentary: Chicago Boys Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago The US assumed the role of Britain after the second world war on a bigger scale " Imperialism is the process whereby the dominant politico-economic interests of one nation expropriate for their own enrichment the land, labor, raw materials, and markets of another people.

Truth and Reconciliation Committee's website: www. Despite months of research, on-camera interviews, depositions to buttress their investigative reporting Military gassing deserters in Vietnam with Sarin gas.

Corporate entities are legally considered as persons in USA and in most nations. The 'corporate persons' are legally entitled to the rights and liabilities due to citizens as persons. Ethics are the rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis.

Economist Milton Friedman writes that corporate executives' "responsibility Friedman also said, "the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals A business cannot have responsibilities. So the question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible? And my answer to that is, no, they do not.

Ronald Duska views Friedman's argument as consequentialist rather than pragmatic, implying that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit the most in long term. Similarly author business consultant Peter Drucker observed, "There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed", implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations.

However, Peter Drucker in another instance observed that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm—primum non nocere. Another view of business is that it must exhibit corporate social responsibility CSR : an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of the communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals.

In the US and most other nations corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects. For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their free speech rights are limited.

This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilitiesDuska argues that stakeholders have the right to expect a business to be ethical; if business has no ethical obligations, other institutions could make the same claim which would be counterproductive to the corporation.

Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors, its fiduciary responsibility to its shareholders. Issues concerning relations between different companies include hostile take-overs and industrial espionage. Ethical standards of an entire organisation can be badly damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge.

Functional business areas Finance Fundamentally finance is a social science discipline. The discipline borders behavioral economics, sociology, economics, accounting and management.

It concerns technical issues such as the mix of debt and equity, dividend policy, the evaluation of alternative investment projects, options, futures, swaps, and other derivatives, portfolio diversification and many others. It is often mistaken by the people to be a discipline free from ethical burdens.

The financial crisis caused critics to challenge the ethics of the executives in charge of U. Finance ethics is overlooked for another reason—issues in finance are often addressed as matters of law rather than ethics. Finance paradigm Aristotle said, "the end and purpose of the polis is the good life". Adam Smith characterized the good life in terms of material goods and intellectual and moral excellences of character Smith in his The Wealth of Nations commented, "All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind.

Neoliberal ideology promoted finance from its position as a component of economics to its core. Proponents of the ideology hold that unrestricted financial flows, if redeemed from the shackles of "financial repressions", best help impoverished nations to grow.

Neoliberals recommended that governments open their financial systems to the global market with minimal regulation over capital flows. The recommendations however, met with criticisms from various schools of ethical philosophy. Some pragmatic ethicists, found these claims to unfalsifiable and a priori, although neither of these makes the recommendations false or unethical per se. Raising economic growth to the highest value necessarily means that welfare is subordinate, although advocates dispute this saying that economic growth provides more welfare than known alternatives.

Since history shows that neither regulated nor unregulated firms always behave ethically, neither regime offers an ethical panacea. The claim that deregulation and the opening up of economies would reduce corruption was also contested. Dobson observes, "a rational agent is simply one who pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum.

In essence, to be rational in finance is to be individualistic, materialistic, and competitive. Within the discipline this rationality concept is never questioned, and has indeed become the theory-of-the-firm's sine qua non". Financial ethics is in this view a mathematical function of shareholder wealth.

Such simplifying assumptions were once necessary for the construction of mathematically robust models. However signalling theory and agency theory extended the paradigm to greater realism. Other issues Fairness in trading practices, trading conditions, financial contracting, sales practices, consultancy services, tax payments, internal audit, external audit and executive compensation also fall under the umbrella of finance and accounting.

Outside of corporations, bucket shops and forex scams are criminal manipulations of financial markets. Cases include accounting scandals, Enron, WorldCom and Satyam. Human resource management Human resource management occupies the sphere of activity of recruitment selection, orientation, performance appraisal, training and development, industrial relations and health and safety issues.

Business Ethicists differ in their orientation towards labour ethics. Some assess human resource policies according to whether they support an egalitarian workplace and the dignity of labor. A common approach to remedying discrimination is affirmative action.

Once hired, employees have the right to occasional cost of living increases, as well as raises based on merit. Promotions, however, are not a right, and there are often fewer openings than qualified applicants. It may seem unfair if an employee who has been with a company longer is passed over for a promotion, but it is not unethical. It is only unethical if the employer did not give the employee proper consideration or used improper criteria for the promotion.

Potential employees have ethical obligations to employers, involving intellectual property protection and whistle-blowing. Employers must consider workplace safety, which may involve modifying the workplace, or providing appropriate training or hazard disclosure. Larger economic issues such as immigration, trade policy, globalization and trade unionism affect workplaces and have an ethical dimension, but are often beyond the purview of individual companies.

Trade unions Unions for example, may push employers to establish due process for workers, but may also cost jobs by demanding unsustainable compensation and work rules. Unionized workplaces may confront union busting and strike breaking and face the ethical implications of work rules that advantage some workers over others. None ensure ethical behavior.

Some studies claim that sustainable success requires a humanely treated and satisfied workforce. Sales and marketing Marketing ethics came of age only as late as s. Marketing ethics is also contested terrain, beyond the previously described issue of potential conflicts between profitability and other concerns. According to Borgerson, and Schroeder , marketing can influence individuals' perceptions of and interactions with other people, implying an ethical responsibility to avoid distorting those perceptions and interactions.

Marketing ethics involves pricing practices, including illegal actions such as price fixing and legal actions including price discrimination and price skimming. Certain promotional activities have drawn fire, including greenwashing, bait and switch, shilling, viral marketing, spam electronic , pyramid schemes and multi-level marketing. Advertising has raised objections about attack ads, subliminal messages, sex in advertising and marketing in schools.

Production This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risk, determining the ethical course can be problematic.

In some case consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. Production may have environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction and urban sprawl.

The downstream effects of technologies nuclear power, genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. While the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited most new technology introduced since the industrial revolution.

Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals. Property The etymological root of property is the Latin 'proprius'[] which refers to 'nature', 'quality', 'one's own', 'special characteristic', 'proper', 'intrinsic', 'inherent', 'regular', 'normal', 'genuine', 'thorough, complete, perfect' etc.

The word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership.

A 'proper' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure. For instance, John Locke justified property rights saying that God had made "the earth, and all inferior creatures, [in] common to all men".

In Utilitarian Jeremy Bentham stated, "property and law are born together and die together". One argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person. Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. Blackstone conceptualized property as the "sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe".

Slaves as property During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property. During this time settlers began the centuries-long process of dispossessing the natives of America of millions of acres of land. Ironically, the natives lost about , square miles , km2 of land in the Louisiana Territory under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, who championed property rights.

Combined with theological justification, property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God. Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of the 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labour or idea and property right over slaves had the same theological and essentialized justification It was even held that the property in slaves was a sacred right.

Wiecek noted, "slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution as it had been under the Articles".

Taney in his judgment stated, "The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution". Natural right vs social construct Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right. Davies counters with "property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons.

Rose finds, "'Property' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable. Persons and things, are 'constituted' or 'fabricated' by legal and other normative techniques Singer observes, "A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights.

Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights. Michelman writes, "A property regime thus depends on a great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self-restraint among the people who enjoy it.

Penner views property as an "illusion"—a "normative phantasm" without substance. Davies counters that "any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict". Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so. Some societies, e. When groups came into conflict, the victor often appropriated the loser's property.

The rights paradigm tended to stabilize the distribution of property holdings on the presumption that title had been lawfully acquired. Property does not exist in isolation, and so property rights too. Bryan claimed that property rights describe relations among people and not just relations between people and things Singer holds that the idea that owners have no legal obligations to others wrongly supposes that property rights hardly ever conflict with other legally protected interests.

Singer continues implying that legal realists "did not take the character and structure of social relations as an important independent factor in choosing the rules that govern market life". Ethics of property rights begins with recognizing the vacuous nature of the notion of property. Intellectual property Intellectual property IP encompasses expressions of ideas, thoughts, codes and information.

Boldrin and Levine argue that "government does not ordinarily enforce monopolies for producers of other goods. This is because it is widely recognized that monopoly creates many social costs. Intellectual monopoly is no different in this respect. The question we address is whether it also creates social benefits commensurate with these social costs. The US Constitution included the power to protect intellectual property, empowering the Federal government "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries".

Boldrin and Levine see no value in such state-enforced monopolies stating, "we ordinarily think of innovative monopoly as an oxymoron. Further they comment, 'intellectual property' "is not like ordinary property at all, but constitutes a government grant of a costly and dangerous private monopoly over ideas.

We show through theory and example that intellectual monopoly is not necessary for innovation and as a practical matter is damaging to growth, prosperity, and liberty". Steelman defends patent monopolies, writing, "Consider prescription drugs, for instance.

Such drugs have benefited millions of people, improving or extending their lives. Patent protection enables drug companies to recoup their development costs because for a specific period of time they have the sole right to manufacture and distribute the products they have invented.

The opposing argument is that the benefits of innovation arrive sooner when patents encourage innovators and their investors to increase their commitments. Roderick Long, a libertarian philosopher, observes, "Ethically, property rights of any kind have to be justified as extensions of the right of individuals to control their own lives.

Thus any alleged property rights that conflict with this moral basis—like the "right" to own slaves—are invalidated. In my judgment, intellectual property rights also fail to pass this test. To enforce copyright laws and the like is to prevent people from making peaceful use of the information they possess. If you have acquired the information legitimately say, by buying a book , then on what grounds can you be prevented from using it, reproducing it, trading it?

Is this not a violation of the freedom of speech and press? It may be objected that the person who originated the information deserves ownership rights over it. But information is not a concrete thing an individual can control; it is a universal, existing in other people's minds and other people's property, and over these the originator has no legitimate sovereignty. You cannot own information without owning other people".

Machlup concluded that patents do not have the intended effect of enhancing innovation. Self-declared anarchist Proudhon, in his seminal work noted, "Monopoly is the natural opposite of competition," and continued, "Competition is the vital force which animates the collective being: to destroy it, if such a supposition were possible, would be to kill society"Mindeli and Pipiya hold that the knowledge economy is an economy of abundance because it relies on the "infinite potential" of knowledge and ideas rather than on the limited resources of natural resources, labor and capital.

Allison envisioned an egalitarian distribution of knowledge. Kinsella claims that IPR create artificial scarcity and reduce equality. Bouckaert wrote, "Natural scarcity is that which follows from the relationship between man and nature. Scarcity is natural when it is possible to conceive of it before any human, institutional, contractual arrangement. Artificial scarcity, on the other hand, is the outcome of such arrangements.

Artificial scarcity can hardly serve as a justification for the legal framework that causes that scarcity. Such an argument would be completely circular. On the contrary, artificial scarcity itself needs a justification" Corporations fund much IP creation and can acquire IP they do not create, to which Menon and others object. Andersen claims that IPR has increasingly become an instrument in eroding public domain. International issues While business ethics emerged as a field in the s, international business ethics did not emerge until the late s, looking back on the international developments of that decade.

Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Also on the basis of their respective GDP and [Corruption rankings]. The success of any business depends on its financial performance. Financial accounting helps the management to report and also control the business performance.

The information regarding the financial performance of the company plays an important role in enabling people to take right decision about the company.

Therefore, it becomes necessary to understand how to record based on accounting conventions and concepts ensure unambling and accurate records. Foreign countries often use dumping as a competitive threat, selling products at prices lower than their normal value.

This can lead to problems in domestic markets. It becomes difficult for these markets to compete with the pricing set by foreign markets. In , the International Trade Commission has been researching anti-dumping laws. Dumping is often seen as an ethical issue, as larger companies are taking advantage of other less economically advanced companies.

Economic systems Political economy and political philosophy have ethical implications, particularly regarding the distribution of economic benefits. John Rawls and Robert Nozick are both notable contributors.

For example, Rawls has been interpreted as offering a critique of offshore outsourcing on social contract grounds, whereas Nozick's libertarian philosophy rejects the notion of any positive corporate social obligation. Sanctions for violating the law can include a civil penalties, such as fines, pecuniary damages, and loss of licenses, property, rights, or privileges; b criminal penalties, such as fines, probation, imprisonment, or a combination thereof; or c both civil and criminal penalties.

Very often it is held that business is not bound by any ethics other than abiding by the law. Milton Friedman is the pioneer of the view. He held that corporations have the obligation to make a profit within the framework of the legal system, nothing more.

Friedman made it explicit that the duty of the business leaders is, "to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom". Ethics for Friedman is nothing more than abiding by 'customs' and 'laws'.

The reduction of ethics to abidance to laws and customs however have drawn serious criticisms. Counter to Friedman's logic it is observed that legal procedures are technocratic, bureaucratic, rigid and obligatory where as ethical act is conscientious, voluntary choice beyond normativity. Law is retroactive. Crime precedes law. Law against a crime, to be passed, the crime must have happened.

Laws are blind to the crimes undefined in it. Also, law presumes the accused is innocent until proven guilty and that the state must establish the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt. As per liberal laws followed in most of the democracies, until the government prosecutor proves the firm guilty with the limited resources available to her, the accused is considered to be innocent.

Though the liberal premises of law are necessary to protect individuals from being persecuted by Government, it is not a sufficient mechanism to make firms morally accountable.

Implementation As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalized language typically called a corporate ethics statement , or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioural requirements typically called corporate ethics codes.

They are generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.

An increasing number of companies also require employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements.

Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct. Many companies are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct.

A competitive business environment may call for unethical behaviour. Lying has become expected in fields such as trading. An example of this are the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the Salomon Brothers. Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.

Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability, or to curry public favour by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.

Sometimes there is disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool. Jones and Parker write, "Most of what we read under the name business ethics is either sentimental common sense, or a set of excuses for being unpleasant. For instance, US Department of Commerce ethics program treats business ethics as a set of instructions and procedures to be followed by 'ethics officers'.

Business ethicists may trivialize the subject, offering standard answers that do not reflect the situation's complexity. Author of 'Business Ethics,' Richard DeGeorge writes in regard to the importance of maintaining a corporate code, "Corporate codes have a certain usefulness and there are several advantages to developing them.

Second, once adopted a code can be used to generate continuing discussion and possible modification to the code. Third, it could help to inculcate in new employees at all levels the perspective of responsibility, the need to think in moral terms about their actions, and the importance of developing the virtues appropriate to their position.

One of the catalysts for the creation of this new role was a series of fraud, corruption, and abuse scandals that afflicted the U. This led to the creation of the Defense Industry Initiative DII , a pan- industry initiative to promote and ensure ethical business practices.

The DII set an early benchmark for ethics management in corporations. The membership grew rapidly the ECOA now has over 1, members and was soon established as an independent organization. Although intended to assist judges with sentencing, the influence in helping to establish best practices has been far-reaching. In the wake of numerous corporate scandals between and affecting large corporations like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco , even small and medium-sized companies have begun to appoint ethics officers.

They often report to the Chief Executive Officer and are responsible for assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations regarding the company's ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees. They are particularly interested in uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This trend is partly due to the Sarbanes—Oxley Act in the United States, which was enacted in reaction to the above scandals.

A related trend is the introduction of risk assessment officers that monitor how shareholders' investments might be affected by the company's decisions. The effectiveness of ethics officers is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect little impact, at least over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behaviour, a culture and climate that usually emanates from the top of the organization.

The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behaviour: a more systemic programme with consistent support from general management will be necessary. The foundation for ethical behaviour goes well beyond corporate culture and the policies of any given company, for it also depends greatly upon an individual's early moral training, the other institutions that affect an individual, the competitive business environment the company is in and, indeed, society as a whole.

In addition to the traditional environmental 'green' sustainability concerns, business ethics practices have expanded to include social sustainability. Social sustainability focuses on issues related to human capital in the business supply chain, such as worker's rights, working conditions, child labor, and human trafficking.

Many industries have organizations dedicated to verifying ethical delivery of products from start to finish, such as the Kimberly Process, which aims to stop the flow of conflict diamonds into international markets, or the Fair Wear Foundation, dedicated to sustainability and fairness in the garment industry.

Academic discipline As an academic discipline, business ethics emerged in the s. Since no academic business ethics journals or conferences existed, researchers published in general management journals, and attended general conferences. Over time, specialized peer-reviewed journals appeared, and more researchers entered the field. Corporate scandals in the earlier s increased the field's popularity.

As of , sixteen academic journals devoted to various business ethics issues existed, with Journal of Business Ethics and Business Ethics Quarterly considered the leaders. The International Business Development Institute is a global non-profit organization that represents nations and all 50 United States.

The Charter is directed by Harvard, MIT, and Fulbright Scholars, and it includes graduate-level coursework in economics, politics, marketing, management, technology, and legal aspects of business development as it pertains to business ethics. Religious views In Sharia law, followed by many Muslims, banking specifically prohibits charging interest on loans.

Traditional Confucian thought discourages profit-seeking. This article stresses about how capable is Christianity of establishing reliable boundaries for financial institutions. One criticism comes from Pope Benedict by describing the "damaging effects of the real economy of badly managed and largely speculative financial dealing.

Business ethics receives an extensive treatment in Jewish thought and Rabbinic literature, both from an ethical Mussar and a legal Halakha perspective; see article Jewish business ethics for further discussion. The philosophy of economics also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the social responsibilities of a business; business management theory; theories of individualism vs. Business ethics is also related to political economy, which is economic analysis from political and historical perspectives.

Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions. Applied ethics Applied ethics is the philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life which are matters of moral judgment.

It is thus the attempts to use philosophical methods to identify the morally correct course of action in various fields of everyday life.

For example, the bioethics community is concerned with identifying the correct approach to legal issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological questions such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution.

Social ethics includes the duties or duty of 'whistleblowers' to the general public as opposed to their loyalty to their employers. As such, it is an area of professional philosophy that is relatively well paid and highly valued both within and outside of academia. Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns what people should believe to be right and wrong, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of moral statements.

Utilitarianism, where the practical consequences of various policies are evaluated on the assumption that the right policy will be the one which results in the greatest happiness. This theories main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between an act and rule utilitarianist morality.

Later developments have also adjusted the theory, most notably Henry Sidgwick who introduced the idea of motive or intent in morality, and Peter Singer who introduced the idea of preference in to moral decision making. Deontological ethics, notions based on 'rules' i. Another key deontological theory is Natural Law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is the basis of the Roman Catholic Church. Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius's notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent.

One modern approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism of which the divide is caused by the opposite takings of an absolute and relativist moral view is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning.

Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features including both theory and practical considerations ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory.

Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions.

By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement. Professional ethics A 12th-century Byzantine manuscript of the Hippocratic oath. Professional ethics encompass the personal, organizational, and corporate standards of behavior expected of professionals. The term professionalism originally applied to vows of a religious order.

By at least the year , the term had seen secular application and was applied to the three learned professions: Divinity, Law, and Medical.

The term professionalism was also used for the military profession around this same time. Professionals and those working in acknowledged professions exercise specialist knowledge and skill.

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