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Then in the previous section we have learnt how to deal with unrecognized method calls, so we are able to write this extension:. The reason is very simple: while the type checking extension is sufficient for TypeChecked , which does not involve static compilation, it is not enough for CompileStatic which requires additional information.

Fixing this is very easy and just implies replacing the newMethod call with something else:. So when the compiler will have to generate bytecode for the call to move , since it is now marked as a dynamic call, it will fallback to the dynamic compiler and let it handle the call.

And since the extension tells us that the return type of the dynamic call is a Robot , subsequent calls will be done statically!

It is a design decision:. In short, if you want to have mixed mode compilation, it has to be explicit, through a type checking extension, so that the compiler, and the designer of the DSL, are totally aware of what they are doing. If that is not enough, then it means that static compilation cannot be done directly and that you have to rely on AST transformations.

Type checking extensions look very attractive from an AST transformation design point of view: extensions have access to context like inferred types, which is often nice to have. And an extension has a direct access to the abstract syntax tree. However, we do not recommend you to do so, unless you are an advanced AST transformation designer and well aware of the compiler internals:.

First of all, you would explicitly break the contract of type checking, which is to annotate, and only annotate the AST. If your extension is meant to work with CompileStatic , then you can modify the AST because this is indeed what CompileStatic will eventually do. Examples of real life type checking extensions are easy to find. You can download the source code for Groovy and take a look at the TypeCheckingExtensionsTest class which is linked to various extension scripts.

An example of a complex type checking extension can be found in the Markup Template Engine source code: this template engine relies on a type checking extension and AST transformations to transform templates into fully statically compiled code. Sources for this can be found here. Table of contents 1. Statements 1. Variable definition 1. Variable assignment 1. Multiple assignment 1. Overflow and Underflow 1. Object destructuring with multiple assignment 1.

Control structures 1. Exception handling 1. Multi-catch 1. ARM Try with resources 1. Power assertion 1. Labeled statements 2. Expressions 2. GPath expressions 2. Object navigation 2.

Expression Deconstruction 2. GPath for XML navigation 3. Promotion and coercion 3. Number promotion 3. Closure to type coercion 3. Assigning a closure to a SAM type 3. Calling a method accepting a SAM type with a closure 3. Closure to arbitrary type coercion 3. Map to type coercion 3. String to enum coercion 3. Custom type coercion 3. Class literals vs variables and the as operator 4.

Optionality 4. Optional parentheses 4. Optional semicolons 4. Optional return keyword 4. Optional public keyword 5. The Groovy Truth 5. Boolean expressions 5. Collections and Arrays 5. Matchers 5. Iterators and Enumerations 5. Maps 5. Strings 5. Numbers 5. Object References 5. Customizing the truth with asBoolean methods 6. Typing 6. Optional typing 6. Static type checking 6. The TypeChecked annotation Activating type checking at compile time Skipping sections 6.

Type checking assignments 6. List and map constructors 6. Method resolution 6. Type inference Principles Variables vs fields in type inference Collection literal type inference Least upper bound instanceof inference Flow typing Advanced type inference 6. Closures and type inference Return type inference Parameter type inference Explicit closure parameters Parameters inferred from single-abstract method types The ClosureParams annotation DelegatesTo 6.

Static compilation 6. Dynamic vs static 6. The CompileStatic annotation 6. Key benefits 7. Type checking extensions 7. Writing a type checking extension 7. Towards a smarter type checker 7. The extensions attribute 7. A DSL for type checking 7. Advanced type checking extensions 7. Precompiled type checking extensions 7.

Using Grab in a type checking extension 7. Sharing or packaging type checking extensions 7. Global type checking extensions 7. Type checking extensions and CompileStatic 7. Mixed mode compilation 7. Transforming the AST in an extension 7. Semantics This chapter covers the semantics of the Groovy programming language. Variable definition Variables can be defined using either their type like String or by using the keyword def or var followed by a variable name:. String x def y var z.

To learn more about the generics support, please read the generics section. Variable assignment You can assign values to variables for later use. Try the following:. Multiple assignment Groovy supports multiple assignment, i. As well as used when declaring variables it also applies to existing variables:. The syntax works for arrays as well as lists, as well as methods that return either of these:. If the right hand side has too many variables, the extra ones are ignored:.

Groovy also supports the normal Java "nested" if then else if syntax:. Class case values match if the switch value is an instance of the class Regular expression case values match if the toString representation of the switch value matches the regex Collection case values match if the switch value is contained in the collection. This also includes ranges since they are Lists Closure case values match if the calling the closure returns a result which is true according to the Groovy truth If none of the above are used then the case value matches if the case value equals the switch value.

When using a closure case value, the default it parameter is actually the switch value in our example, variable x. Multi-assignment in combination with for loop Groovy has supported multi-assignment statements since Groovy 1. Exception handling Exception handling is the same as Java.

Multi-catch With the multi catch block since Groovy 2. Power assertion Unlike Java with which Groovy shares the assert keyword, the latter in Groovy behaves very differently.

Incorrect computation result. Expression: calc. Labeled statements Any statement can be associated with a label. Expressions TBD. GPath expressions GPath is a path expression language integrated into Groovy which allows parts of nested structured data to be identified.

As an example, you can specify a path to an object or element of interest:. Expression Deconstruction We can decompose the expression this. A sub-expression like this.

GPath expressions do not have a convention where a s means a list or anything like that. Array access notation can also be used in a GPath expression where a collection is present :. Number promotion The rules of number promotion are specified in the section on math operations.

This includes:. Any closure can be converted into a SAM type using the as operator:. Closure to arbitrary type coercion In addition to SAM types, a closure can be coerced to any type and in particular interfaces. You can coerce a closure into the interface using the as keyword:.

This produces a class for which all methods are implemented using the closure:. Map to type coercion Usually using a single closure to implement an interface or a class with multiple methods is not the way to go. String to enum coercion Groovy allows transparent String or GString to enum values coercion.

However, this would throw a runtime error IllegalArgumentException :. Note that it is also possible to use implicit coercion in switch statements:. Custom type coercion It is possible for a class to define custom coercion strategies by implementing the asType method. Putting it all together, the Polar class looks like this:. Class literals vs variables and the as operator Using the as keyword is only possible if you have a static reference to a class, like in the following code:.

But what if you get the class by reflection, for example by calling Class. Trying to use the reference to the class with the as keyword would fail:.

Optional parentheses Method calls can omit the parentheses if there is at least one parameter and there is no ambiguity:. Parentheses are required for method calls without parameters or ambiguous method calls:. Optional semicolons In Groovy semicolons at the end of the line can be omitted, if the line contains only a single statement.

Optional return keyword In Groovy, the last expression evaluated in the body of a method or a closure is returned. Optional public keyword By default, Groovy classes and methods are public. Therefore this class:. The Groovy Truth Groovy decides whether a expression is true or false by applying the rules given below. Boolean expressions True if the corresponding Boolean value is true. Collections and Arrays Non-empty Collections and arrays are true.

Matchers True if the Matcher has at least one match. Iterators and Enumerations Iterators and Enumerations with further elements are coerced to true. Maps Non-empty Maps are evaluated to true. Numbers Non-zero numbers are true. Object References Non-null object references are coerced to true. Customizing the truth with asBoolean methods In order to customize whether groovy evaluates your object to true or false implement the asBoolean method:.

Groovy will call this method to coerce your object to a boolean value, e. Using the def keyword here is recommended to describe the intent of a method which is supposed to work on any type, but technically, we could use Object instead and the result would be the same: def is, in Groovy, strictly equivalent to using Object.

Omitting types is in general considered a bad practice in method parameters or method return types for public APIs. While using def in a local variable is not really a problem because the visibility of the variable is limited to the method itself, while set on a method parameter, def will be converted to Object in the method signature, making it difficult for users to know which is the expected type of the arguments.

This means that you should limit this to cases where you are explicitly relying on duck typing. Static type checking By default, Groovy performs minimal type checking at compile time.

When type checking is activated, the compiler performs much more work:. The TypeChecked annotation Activating type checking at compile time The groovy. Skipping sections The scope of type checking can be restricted. TypeChecked import groovy. The following sections describe the semantics of type checking in Groovy.

Type checking assignments An object o of type A can be assigned to a variable of type T if and only if:. List and map constructors In addition to the assignment rules above, if an assignment is deemed invalid, in type checked mode, a list literal or a map literal A can be assigned to a variable of type T if:. Method resolution In type checked mode, methods are resolved at compile time. Cannot find matching method MyService printLine java. It is important to understand the logic behind the type checker: it is a compile-time check, so by definition, the type checker is not aware of any kind of runtime metaprogramming that you do.

This means that code which is perfectly valid without TypeChecked will not compile anymore if you activate type checking. This is in particular true if you think of duck typing:. Type inference Principles When code is annotated with TypeChecked , the compiler performs type inference. Variables vs fields in type inference It is worth noting that although the compiler performs type inference on local variables, it does not perform any kind of type inference on fields, always falling back to the declared type of a field.

This is one of the reasons why we recommend to use typed fields. This document will probably fit best for readers that have a background similar to my own: experienced with at least one object-oriented language like Ruby, Python, PHP or Java, only little experience with JavaScript, and completely new to Node. Aiming at developers that already have experience with other programming languages means that this document won't cover really basic stuff like data types, variables, control structures and the likes.

You already need to know about these to understand this document. However, because functions and objects in JavaScript are different from their counterparts in most other languages, these will be explained in more detail. Upon finishing this document, you will have created a complete web application which allows the users of this application to view web pages and upload files.

Which, of course, is not exactly world-changing, but we will go some extra miles and not only create the code that is "just enough" to make these use cases possible, but create a simple, yet complete framework to cleanly separate the different aspects of our application.

You will see what I mean in a minute. We will start with looking at how JavaScript development in Node. Next, we will stay with the good old tradition of writing a "Hello World" application, which is a most basic Node. Then, we will discuss what kind of "real" application we want to build, dissect the different parts which need to be implemented to assemble this application, and start working on each of these parts step-by-step.

As promised, along the way we will learn about some of the more advanced concepts of JavaScript, how to make use of them, and look at why it makes sense to use these concepts instead of those we know from other programming languages.

The source code of the finished application is available through the NodeBeginnerBook Github repository. Before we talk about all the technical stuff, let's take a moment and talk about you and your relationship with JavaScript.

This chapter is here to allow you to estimate if reading this document any further makes sense for you. You came across this funny thing called JavaScript, but you only used it in a very basic way, adding interactivity to your web pages every now and then. What you really wanted was "the real thing", you wanted to know how to build complex web sites - you learned a programming language like PHP, Ruby, Java, and started writing "backend" code.

Nevertheless, you kept an eye on JavaScript, you saw that with the introduction of jQuery, Prototype and the likes, things got more advanced in JavaScript land, and that this language really was about more than window. However, this was all still frontend stuff, and although it was nice to have jQuery at your disposal whenever you felt like spicing up a web page, at the end of the day you were, at best, a JavaScript user , but not a JavaScript developer. And then came Node.

JavaScript on the server, how cool is that? You decided that it's about time to check out the old, new JavaScript. But wait, writing Node. And this time for real. Here is the problem: Because JavaScript really lives two, maybe even three lives the funny little DHTML helper from the mid's, the more serious frontend stuff like jQuery and the likes, and now server-side , it's not that easy to find information that helps you to learn JavaScript the "right" way, in order to write Node.

Because that's the catch: you already are an experienced developer, you don't want to learn a new technique by just hacking around and mis-using it; you want to be sure that you are approaching it from the right angle. There is, of course, excellent documentation out there. But documentation alone sometimes isn't enough. What is needed is guidance. There are some really excellent JavaScript people out there. I'm not one of them. I'm really just the guy I talked about in the previous paragraph.

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