Encyclopaedia of the hindu world pdf

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If the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms had in the s served to fracture already fragile political alliances, its progeny as the Government of India Act with its promise for greater self-government further crowded the political stage and divided those groups struggling for their share of power.

During these years, the spectrum of nationalist vision was as broad as Indian solidarity was elusive. The issues of education and nationalism come together for Radhakrishnan during this period. For Radhakrishnan, a university education which quickened the development of the whole individual was the only responsible and practical means to the creation of Indian solidarity and clarity of national vision.

Throughout the s and s, Radhakrishnan expressed his vision of an autonomous India. He envisioned an India built and guided by those who were truly educated, by those who had a personal vision of and commitment to raising Indian self-consciousness. The closing years of the s were busy ones. Radhakrishnan saw during his terms in office an increasing need for world unity and universal fellowship. The urgency of this need was pressed home to Radhakrishnan by what he saw as the unfolding crises throughout the world.

At the time of his taking up the office of Vice-President, the Korean war was already in full swing. Moreover, the Cold War divided East and West leaving each side suspicious of the other and on the defensive. Radhakrishnan challenged what he saw as the divisive potential and dominating character of self-professed international organizations such as the League of Nations. Instead, he called for the promotion of a creative internationalism based on the spiritual foundations of integral experience.

Only then could understanding and tolerance between peoples and between nations be promoted. Radhakrishnan retired from public life in He spent the last eight years of his life at the home he built in Mylapore, Madras. Radhakrishnan died on April 17, Radhakrishnan located his metaphysics within the Advaita non-dual Vedanta tradition sampradaya. And like other Vedantins before him, Radhakrishnan wrote commentaries on the Prasthanatraya that is, main primary texts of Vedanta : the Upanisads , Brahma Sutra , and the Bhagavadgita As an Advaitin, Radhakrishnan embraced a metaphysical idealism.

Brahman is the source of the world and its manifestations, but these modes do not affect the integrity of Brahman. For Radhakrishnan, maya ought not to be understood to imply a strict objective idealism, one in which the world is taken to be inherently disconnected from Brahman, but rather maya indicates, among other things, a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real. It begins with a general survey of the variety of terms as well as the characteristics Radhakrishnan associates with intuition.

It then details with how Radhakrishnan understands specific occurrences of intuition in relation to other forms of experience — cognitive, psychic, aesthetic, ethical, and religious.

Radhakrishnan associates a vast constellation of terms with intuition. First, intuition is integral in the sense that it coordinates and synthesizes all other experiences. It integrates all other experiences into a more unified whole. Second, intuition is integral as it forms the basis of all other experiences. In other words, Radhakrishnan holds that all experiences are at bottom intuitional.

Third, intuition is integral in the sense that the results of the experience are integrated into the life of the individual. For Radhakrishnan, intuition finds expression in the world of action and social relations.

As Radhakrishnan understands it, all progress is the result of the creative potency of intuition. For Radhakrishnan, intuition is a distinct form of experience. Intuition is of a self-certifying character svatassiddha. It is sufficient and complete. Intuition entails pure comprehension, entire significance, complete validity IVL It is both truth-filled and truth-bearing IVL Intuition is its own cause and its own explanation IVL It is sovereign IVL Intuition is a positive feeling of calm and confidence, joy and strength IVL Intuition is profoundly satisfying IVL It is peace, power and joy IVL Intuition is the ultimate form of experience for Radhakrishnan.

It is ultimate in the sense that intuition constitutes the fullest and therefore the most authentic realization of the Real Brahman. The ultimacy of intuition is also accounted for by Radhakrishnan in that it is the ground of all other forms of experience. Intuition is a self-revelation of the divine. Intuitive experience is immediate. Intuition operates on a supra-conscious level, unmediated as it is by conscious thought.

One might object here that Radhakrishnan has conflated the experience itself with its subsequent interpretation and expression. Finally, intuition, according to Radhakrishnan, is ineffable. While the experience itself transcends expression, it also provokes it IVL The provocation of expression is, for Radhakrishnan, testimony to the creative impulse of intuition. All creativity and indeed all progress in the various spheres of life is the inevitable result of intuition.

Radhakrishnan recognizes three categories of cognitive experience: sense experience, discursive reasoning, and intuitive apprehension. For Radhakrishnan all of these forms of experience contribute, in varying degrees, to a knowledge of the real Brahman , and as such have their basis in intuition. In this sense, sense perception may be considered intuitive, though Radhakrishnan does not explicitly describe it as such.

Discursive reasoning, and the logical knowledge it produces, is subsequent to sensory experience perception. There is a paradoxical element here. Radhakrishnan seems to be suggesting that the direct proximity to an external object one encounters in sense perception is compromised when the perception is interpreted and subsequently incorporated into a more systematic, though presumably higher, form of knowledge through discursive reasoning.

For Radhakrishnan, discursive reasoning and the logical systems they construct possess an element of intuition. Radhakrishnan argues against what he sees as the prevalent Western temptation to reduce the intuitive to the logical. While logic deals with facts already known, intuition goes beyond logic to reveal previously unseen connections between facts. Intuition not only clarifies the relations between facts and seemingly discordant systems, but lends itself to the discovery of new knowledge which then becomes an appropriate subject of philosophical inquiry and logical analysis.

Claiming to take his cue from his former adversary Henri Bergson, Radhakrishnan offers three explanations to account for the tendency to overlook the presence of intuition in discursive reasoning. First, Radhakrishnan claims, intuition presupposes a rational knowledge of facts. The successful practice of intuition requires previous study and assimilation of a multitude of facts and laws.

Second, the intuitive element is often obscured in discursive reasoning because facts known prior to the intuition are retained, though they are synthesized, and perhaps reinterpreted, in light of the intuitive insight. Finally, intuition in discursive reasoning is often overlooked, disguised as it is in the language of logic.

In short, the intuitive is mistaken for the logical. Perhaps what Radhakrishnan means is that logic is the only valid means by which we are able to organize and systematize empirical facts. Conversely, Radhakrishnan offers a positive argument for the place of intuition in discursive reasoning.

A purely mechanical account of discursive reasoning ignores the inherently creative and dynamic dimension of intuitive insight. Intuition is not the end, but part of an ever-developing and ever-dynamic process of realization. Mere intuitions are blind while intellectual work is empty.

All processes are partly intuitive and partly intellectual. Radhakrishnan accounts for such experiences in terms of a highly developed sensitivity to intuition. Rather, they are the products of carefully controlled mental experiments. In fact, they are evidence of the remarkable heights to which the undeveloped, limited intellect is capable.

They are, for Radhakrishnan, accomplishments rather than failures of human consciousness. However, the artistic experience should not be confused with its expression. While the experience itself is ineffable, the challenge for the artist is to give the experience concrete expression.

For Radhakrishnan, true art is an expression of the whole personality, seized as it was with the creative impulse of the universe.

Artistic intuition mitigates and subdues rational reflection. For Radhakrishnan, artistic expression is dynamic. Having had the experience, the artist attempts to recall it. The recollection of the intuition, Radhakrishnan believes, is not a plodding reconstruction, nor one of dispassionate analysis.

To put the matter somewhat differently, the emotional vibrancy of the aesthetic experience gives one knowledge by being rather than knowledge by knowing IVL There is a concordance of agendas in art and science. The artist is engaged in a similar task. Despite this synthetic impulse, Radhakrishnan is careful to explain that the two disciplines are not wholly the same.

The difference turns on what he sees as the predominantly aesthetic and qualitative nature of artistic expression. Presumably, Radhakrishnan means that, unlike the universal laws with which science attempts to grapple, art is much more subjective, not in its creative origin, but in its expression.

The former is the language of mystery, of devotion, of religion. For Radhakrishnan, ethical experiences are profoundly transformative.

The experience resolves dilemmas and harmonizes seemingly discordant paths of possible action. For Radhakrishnan, an ethical transformation of the kind brought about by intuition is akin to religious growth and heightened realization. Of course, not all ethical decisions or actions possess the quality of being guided by an intuitive impulse.

Radhakrishnan willingly concedes that the vast majority of moral decisions are the result of conformity to well-established moral codes.

However, it is in times of moral crisis that the creative force of ethical intuitions come to the fore. The sound player has a sense of right and feels that, if he does not follow it, he will be false to himself. By definition, moral actions are socially rooted. As such the effects of ethical intuitions are played out on the social stage. There is a sense of urgency, if not inevitability, about this. The impulse to share the moral insight provides an opportunity to test the validity of the intuition against reason.

The moral hero, as Radhakrishnan puts it, does not live by intuition alone. The intuitive experience, while it is the creative guiding impulse behind all moral progress, must be checked and tested against reason. Those whose lives are profoundly transformed and who are guided by the ethical experience are, for Radhakrishnan, moral heroes. In a sense, there is very much an art and science to ethical living. Like the artist, the moral hero does not turn his back on the world.

Radhakrishnan believes that ethical intuitions at their deepest transcend conventional and mechanically constructed ethical systems. The contribution of ethically realized individuals is their promotion of moral progress in the world. For the sake of clarity, we must at the outset make a tentative distinction between religious experience on the one hand and integral experience on the other.

At its most basic, religions, for Radhakrishnan, represent the various interpretations of experience, while integral experience is the essence of all religions. But the interpretations should not be confused with the experiences themselves. For Radhakrishnan, the creeds and theological formulations of religion are but intellectual representations and symbols of experience.

It follows here that religious experiences are, for Radhakrishnan, context relative and therefore imperfect. They are informed by and experienced through specific cultural, historical, linguistic and religious lenses. Because of their contextuality and subsequent intellectualization, experiences in the religious sphere are limited.

Radhakrishnan is explicit and emphatic in his view that religious intuition is a unique form of experience. Religious intuition is more than simply the confluence of the cognitive, aesthetic, and ethical sides of life. However vital and significant these sides of life may be, they are but partial and fragmented constituents of a greater whole, a whole which is experienced in its fullness and immediacy in religious intuition.

Philosophical, artistic, and ethical values of truth, beauty, and goodness are not known through the senses or by reason. For Radhakrishnan, religious intuition informs, conjoins, and transcends an otherwise fragmentary consciousness. His advaitic interpretation allows him to affirm the ineffability of the truth behind the formula. Radhakrishnan readily appropriates his acceptance of the non-dual experience to his interpretation of religious intuition.

Any attempt at interpretation of the intuition could only approximate the truth of the experience itself. As the ultimate realization, religious intuition must not only account for and bring together all other forms of experience, but must overcome the distinctions between them.

Radhakrishnan goes so far as to claim that intuition of this sort is the essence of religion. All religions are informed by it, though all fail to varying degrees to interpret it. With this, the present discussion of intuition and the varieties of experience has come full circle. Radhakrishnan identifies intuition — in all its contextual varieties — with integral experience.

The two expressions are, for Radhakrishnan, synonymous. It furnishes the individual with an ever-deepening awareness of and appreciation for the unity of Reality. As an intuition, integral experience is not only the basis of all experience but the source of all creative ingenuity, whether such innovation be philosophical, scientific, moral, artistic, or religious.

Moreover, not only does integral experience find expression in these various spheres of life, but such expression, Radhakrishnan believes, quickens the intuitive and creative impulse among those it touches.

Radhakrishnan uses his distinctions between experience and interpretation, between religion and religions, to correlate his brand of Hinduism that is, Advaita Vedanta with religion itself.

It is something inward and personal which unifies all values and organizes all experiences. It is the reaction to the whole of man to the whole of reality. For Radhakrishnan, integral intuitions are the authority for, and the soul of, religion IVL For Radhakrishnan, Hinduism at its Vedantic best is religion. Other religions, including what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism, are interpretations of Advaita Vedanta. The various religions are merely interpretations of his Vedanta.

It is the distinction between immediacy and thought. The apologetic force of this brief statement is clear. For Radhakrishnan, the intuitive, experiential immediacy of Advaita Vedanta is the genuine authority for all religions, and all religions as intellectually mediated interpretations derive from and must ultimately defer to Advaita Vedanta. For Radhakrishnan, the religions are not on an even footing in their approximations and interpretations of a common experience.

To the extent that all traditions are informed by what Radhakrishnan claims to be a common ground of experience that is, Advaita Vedanta , each religion has value. At the same time, all religions as interpretations leave room for development and spiritual progress. Radhakrishnan argues that Hinduism, as he understands it, is a scientific religion.

True religion, argues Radhakrishnan, remains open to experience and encourages an experimental attitude with regard to its experiential data.

Hinduism more than any other religion exemplifies this scientific attitude. What sets Hinduism apart from other religions is its unlimited appeal to and appreciation for all forms of experience. Experience and experimentation are the origin and end of Hinduism, as Radhakrishnan understand it. Radhakrishnan argues that a scientific attitude has been the hallmark of Hinduism throughout its history. They are the pioneer researchers in the realm of the spirit who saw more in the world than their followers.

Their utterances are not based on transitory vision but on a continuous experience of resident life and power. They are not so much dogmatic dicta as transcripts from life. They record the spiritual experiences of souls strongly endowed with the sense of reality. They ought not be taken as authoritative in and of themselves, for only integral intuitions validated by the light of reason are the final authority on religious matters.

For Radhakrishnan, the marginalization of intuition and the abandonment of the experimental attitude in matters of religion has lead Christianity to dogmatic stasis. Just as the intellect has dominated Western philosophy to the detriment of intuition, so too has Christianity followed suit in its search for a theological touchstone in scripture.

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The Hindu Analysis 7 July — Download. The Hindu Analysis 6 July — Download. The Hindu Analysis 5 July — Download. Around B. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were common in the Vedic Period. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. The concept of dharma was introduced in new texts, and other faiths, such as Buddhism and Jainism, spread rapidly. Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities. Buddhism, in fact, arose out of Hinduism, and both believe in reincarnation, karma and that a life of devotion and honor is a path to salvation and enlightenment.

But some key differences exist between the two religions: Buddhism rejects the caste system of Hinduism, and does away with the rituals, the priesthood and the gods that are integral to the Hindu faith.

The Medieval Period of Hinduism lasted from about to A. New texts emerged, and poet-saints recorded their spiritual sentiments during this time. In the 7th century, Muslim Arabs began invading areas in India.

During parts of the Muslim Period, which lasted from about to , Islamic rulers prevented Hindus from worshipping their deities, and some temples were destroyed. Indian statesman and activist Mahatma Gandhi, Between and , the British controlled India.

At first, the new rulers allowed Hindus to practice their religion without interference. But later, Christian missionaries sought to convert and westernize the people. Many reformers emerged during the British Period. The partition of India occurred in , and Gandhi was assassinated in British India was split into what are now the independent nations of India and Pakistan , and Hinduism became the major religion of India.

Starting in the s, many Hindus migrated to North America and Britain, spreading their faith and philosophies to the western world. An early 18th century depiction of Devi revered by Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Hindus worship many gods and goddesses in addition to Brahman, who is believed to be the supreme God force present in all things.

Followers of Hinduism can visit the Mandir any time they please. Hindus can also worship at home, and many have a special shrine dedicated to certain gods and goddesses. The giving of offerings is an important part of Hindu worship. Others believe that all the deities are a manifestation of one.

The caste system is a social hierarchy in India that divides Hindus based on their karma and dharma. Many scholars believe the system dates back more than 3, years. Many subcategories also exist within each caste.

Today, the caste system still exists in India but is loosely followed.